Cicero: An Introduction

Marcus Tullius Cicero was born on January 3, 106 BC, in the town of Arpinum, southeast of Rome. He was not born into an old aristocratic family, but was by no means roughing it as a child. Instead, since they belonged to the equestrian class, his family possessed the resources necessary to secure for Cicero a first-rate education that inspired and cultivated his naturally born talents in rhetoric and philosophy. Having displayed such an aptitude for these fields at a young age, Cicero was given the opportunity to study law, rhetoric, and philosophy in Rome. Training under renowned orator Lucius Licinius Crassus and a plethora of esteemed Greek philosophers, Cicero immersed himself in Stoic, Epicurean, and Academic traditions. He served briefly in the Roman military during the Social War before returning to Rome and committing himself fully to a legal and political career.

Image Credit: Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

Not long after he entered the legal scene, Cicero distinguished himself in the Roman Courts through the brilliance and subversiveness of his speeches. Most notably, his defense delivered against the corruption of dictator Sulla, Pro Roscio Amerino, brought extensive attention and commendation from other Roman officials. After further succeeding in his legal career, Cicero entered the realm of politics, where he followed the cursus honorem. He served as quaestor in Sicily in 75 BC, where he received widespread praise for his administrative skill and integrity. His reputation was further established when he prosecuted the corrupt former governor of Sicily, Gaius Verres, in speeches known as the Verrines, and won; this landmark victory cemented Cicero's status as one of Rome's most foremost orators. It was during his oratorial peak that Cicero delivered his impassioned defense of the Greek poet Archias, Pro Archia Poeta. Not merely a legal argument, Pro Archia Poeta was Cicero's assertion of the value of poetry and learning in public life and remains one of his most celebrated works.

In 63 BC, Cicero was elected consul, the first man in his family to be granted this position, regarded as the pinnacle of Roman political life (a remarkable achievement). His consulship was primarily defined by his adept suppression of the Catilinarian conspiracy, in which Lucius Sergius Catilina, angered by having lost the election to Cicero, attempted to stage a coup. After exposing the plot through a series of speeches known as the Catilinarian Orations, Cicero oversaw the execution of several of the conspirators without trial. This neglect of proper Roman democratic tradition, though without impact at the time -- Cicero was lauded as the “savior of the Republic" after the executions -- would later provide grounds for his exile in 58 BC.

Cicero's exile, successful through the political maneuvering of Publius Clodius Pulcher, forced Cicero to spend over a year away from Rome, during which he wrote letters expressing his all-consuming despair. Despite being recalled into public life in 57 BC, Cicero never fully regained the political dominance. Additionally, although he attempted to remain neutral during the civil war between Julius Caesar and Pompey, Cicero ultimately aligned with Pompey's cause. Thus, after Caesar's victory, Cicero, under considerable pressure, largely withdrew from politics and devoted himself to a literary career. Between 55 and 44 BC, he composed many of his most influential works (eg, De Oratore, De Re Publica, De Legibus, De Finibus, Tusculan Disputations, and De Officiis) that all sought to adapt Greek philosophy for a Roman audience and articulated Cicero's belief in the necessity of moral duty and civic responsibility.

Coupled with his literary pursuits, Cicero also wrote an extensive collection of letters that have since been collected in Epistulae ad Atticum, Epistulae ad Familiares, and Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem. These letters, written without expectation of publication, provide insight into Cicero's deeply conflicted perspective on the future of the Roman Republic. Lamenting the disappearance of Roman democratic practices, Cicero capitalized on the assassination of Caesar to emerge again as a political force. In a series of speeches, the Philippics, Cicero denounced Antony as a tyrant and a danger to Rome's political structure. Once again, Cicero had chosen the losing side in the game that is Rome's ever-changing political scene; when Antony formed the Second Triumvirate with Octavian and Lepidus, he proscribed Cicero as an enemy of the state.

In December of 43 BC, after being captured while attempting to flee Italy, Cicero was executed on Anthony's orders. His head and hands were displayed for public viewing in the Roman Forum-- the ultimate symbol of his humiliation. Despite his disgraceful end, Cicero's philosophical works continued to play an integral role in Roman education and laid the groundwork for medieval and Enlightenment political theory. His idealism and rhetorical talent continue to fascinate speakers and writers today. It is unquestionable that Cicero is one of the most powerful voices in the history of political thought.

Although this post provides only the broadest strokes of Cicero's life and legacy, we hope the context provided here creates a helpful backdrop for our future prosaic analyses of Cicero's work. As always, please let us know in the comments any additional facts you'd like to see included, as well as prose of Cicero you'd like to see analyzed!